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- From: leech@mahler.cs.unc.edu (Jon Leech)
- Newsgroups: sci.space,news.answers
- Subject: Space FAQ 12/15 - Controversial Questions
- Keywords: Frequently Asked Questions
- Message-ID: <controversy_723318270@cs.unc.edu>
- Date: 2 Dec 92 17:44:38 GMT
- Expires: 6 Jan 93 17:44:30 GMT
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- Organization: University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
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-
- CONTROVERSIAL QUESTIONS
-
- These issues periodically come up with much argument and few facts being
- offered. The summaries below attempt to represent the position on which
- much of the net community has settled. Please DON'T bring them up again
- unless there's something truly new to be discussed. The net can't set
- public policy, that's what your representatives are for.
-
-
- WHAT HAPPENED TO THE SATURN V PLANS
-
- Despite a widespread belief to the contrary, the Saturn V blueprints
- have not been lost. They are kept at Marshall Space Flight Center on
- microfilm.
-
- The problem in re-creating the Saturn V is not finding the drawings, it
- is finding vendors who can supply mid-1960's vintage hardware (like
- guidance system components), and the fact that the launch pads and VAB
- have been converted to Space Shuttle use, so you have no place to launch
- from.
-
- By the time you redesign to accommodate available hardware and re-modify
- the launch pads, you may as well have started from scratch with a clean
- sheet design.
-
-
- WHY DATA FROM SPACE MISSIONS ISN'T IMMEDIATELY AVAILABLE
-
- Investigators associated with NASA missions are allowed exclusive access
- for one year after the data is obtained in order to give them an
- opportunity to analyze the data and publish results without being
- "scooped" by people uninvolved in the mission. However, NASA frequently
- releases examples (in non-digital form, e.g. photos) to the public early
- in a mission.
-
-
- RISKS OF NUCLEAR (RTG) POWER SOURCES FOR SPACE PROBES
-
- There has been extensive discussion on this topic sparked by attempts to
- block the Galileo and Ulysses launches on grounds of the plutonium
- thermal sources being dangerous. Numerous studies claim that even in
- worst-case scenarios (shuttle explosion during launch, or accidental
- reentry at interplanetary velocities), the risks are extremely small.
- Two interesting data points are (1) The May 1968 loss of two SNAP 19B2
- RTGs, which landed intact in the Pacific Ocean after a Nimbus B weather
- satellite failed to reach orbit. The fuel was recovered after 5 months
- with no release of plutonium. (2) In April 1970, the Apollo 13 lunar
- module reentered the atmosphere and its SNAP 27 RTG heat source, which
- was jettisoned, fell intact into the 20,000 feet deep Tonga Trench in
- the Pacific Ocean. The corrosion resistant materials of the RTG are
- expected to prevent release of the fuel for a period of time equal to 10
- half-lives of the Pu-238 fuel or about 870 years [DOE 1980].
-
- To make your own informed judgement, some references you may wish to
- pursue are:
-
- A good review of the technical facts and issues is given by Daniel
- Salisbury in "Radiation Risk and Planetary Exploration-- The RTG
- Controversy," *Planetary Report*, May-June 1987, pages 3-7. Another good
- article, which also reviews the events preceding Galileo's launch,
- "Showdown at Pad 39-B," by Robert G. Nichols, appeared in the November
- 1989 issue of *Ad Astra*. (Both magazines are published by pro-space
- organizations, the Planetary Society and the National Space Society
- respectively.)
-
- Gordon L Chipman, Jr., "Advanced Space Nuclear Systems" (AAS 82-261), in
- *Developing the Space Frontier*, edited by Albert Naumann and Grover
- Alexander, Univelt, 1983, p. 193-213.
-
- "Hazards from Plutonium Toxicity", by Bernard L. Cohen, Health Physics,
- Vol 32 (may) 1977, page 359-379.
-
- NUS Corporation, Safety Status Report for the Ulysses Mission: Risk
- Analysis (Book 1). Document number is NUS 5235; there is no GPO #;
- published Jan 31, 1990.
-
- NASA Office of Space Science and Applications, *Final Environmental
- Impact Statement for the Ulysses Mission (Tier 2)*, (no serial number or
- GPO number, but probably available from NTIS or NASA) June 1990.
-
- [DOE 1980] U.S. Department of Energy, *Transuranic Elements in the
- Environment*, Wayne C. Hanson, editor; DOE Document No. DOE/TIC-22800;
- Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., April 1980.)
-
-
- IMPACT OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE ON THE OZONE LAYER
-
- From time to time, claims are made that chemicals released from
- the Space Shuttle's Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) are responsible
- for a significant amount of damage to the ozone layer. Studies
- indicate that they in reality have only a minute impact, both in
- absolute terms and relative to other chemical sources. The
- remainder of this item is a response from the author of the quoted
- study, Charles Jackman.
-
- The atmospheric modelling study of the space shuttle effects on the
- stratosphere involved three independent theoretical groups, and was
- organized by Dr. Michael Prather, NASA/Goddard Institute for Space
- Studies. The three groups involved Michael Prather and Maria Garcia
- (NASA/GISS), Charlie Jackman and Anne Douglass (NASA/Goddard Space
- Flight Center), and Malcolm Ko and Dak Sze (Atmospheric and
- Environmental Research, Inc.). The effort was to look at the effects
- of the space shuttle and Titan rockets on the stratosphere.
-
- The following are the estimated sources of stratospheric chlorine:
-
- Industrial sources: 300,000,000 kilograms/year
- Natural sources: 75,000,000 kilograms/year
- Shuttle sources: 725,000 kilograms/year
-
- The shuttle source assumes 9 space shuttles and 6 Titan rockets are
- launched yearly. Thus the launches would add less than 0.25% to the
- total stratospheric chlorine sources.
-
- The effect on ozone is minimal: global yearly average total ozone would
- be decreased by 0.0065%. This is much less than total ozone variability
- associated with volcanic activity and solar flares.
-
- The influence of human-made chlorine products on ozone is computed
- by atmospheric model calculations to be a 1% decrease in globally
- averaged ozone between 1980 and 1990. The influence of the space shuttle and
- Titan rockets on the stratosphere is negligible. The launch
- schedule of the Space Shuttle and Titan rockets would need to be
- increased by over a factor of a hundred in order to have about
- the same effect on ozone as our increases in industrial halocarbons
- do at the present time.
-
- Theoretical results of this study have been published in _The Space
- Shuttle's Impact on the Stratosphere_, MJ Prather, MM Garcia, AR
- Douglass, CH Jackman, M.K.W. Ko and N.D. Sze, Journal of Geophysical
- Research, 95, 18583-18590, 1990.
-
- Charles Jackman, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Branch,
- Code 916, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center,
- Greenbelt, MD 20771
-
- Also see _Chemical Rockets and the Environment_, A McDonald, R Bennett,
- J Hinshaw, and M Barnes, Aerospace America, May 1991.
-
-
- HOW LONG CAN A HUMAN LIVE UNPROTECTED IN SPACE
-
- If you *don't* try to hold your breath, exposure to space for half a
- minute or so is unlikely to produce permanent injury. Holding your
- breath is likely to damage your lungs, something scuba divers have to
- watch out for when ascending, and you'll have eardrum trouble if your
- Eustachian tubes are badly plugged up, but theory predicts -- and animal
- experiments confirm -- that otherwise, exposure to vacuum causes no
- immediate injury. You do not explode. Your blood does not boil. You do
- not freeze. You do not instantly lose consciousness.
-
- Various minor problems (sunburn, possibly "the bends", certainly some
- [mild, reversible, painless] swelling of skin and underlying tissue)
- start after ten seconds or so. At some point you lose consciousness from
- lack of oxygen. Injuries accumulate. After perhaps one or two minutes,
- you're dying. The limits are not really known.
-
- References:
-
- _The Effect on the Chimpanzee of Rapid Decompression to a Near Vacuum_,
- Alfred G. Koestler ed., NASA CR-329 (Nov 1965).
-
- _Experimental Animal Decompression to a Near Vacuum Environment_, R.W.
- Bancroft, J.E. Dunn, eds, Report SAM-TR-65-48 (June 1965), USAF School
- of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks AFB, Texas.
-
-
- USING THE SHUTTLE BEYOND LOW EARTH ORBIT
-
- You can't use the shuttle orbiter for missions beyond low Earth orbit
- because it can't get there. It is big and heavy and does not carry
- enough fuel, even if you fill part of the cargo bay with tanks.
-
- Furthermore, it is not particularly sensible to do so, because much of
- that weight is things like wings, which are totally useless except in
- the immediate vicinity of the Earth. The shuttle orbiter is highly
- specialized for travel between Earth's surface and low orbit. Taking it
- higher is enormously costly and wasteful. A much better approach would
- be to use shuttle subsystems to build a specialized high-orbit
- spacecraft.
-
- [Yet another concise answer by Henry Spencer.]
-
-
- THE "FACE ON MARS"
-
- There really is a big rock on Mars that looks remarkably like a humanoid
- face. It appears in two different frames of Viking Orbiter imagery:
- 35A72 (much more facelike in appearance, and the one more often
- published, with the Sun 10 degrees above western horizon) and 70A13
- (with the Sun 27 degrees from the west).
-
- Science writer Richard Hoagland has championed the idea that the Face is
- artificial, intended to resemble a human, and erected by an
- extraterrestrial civilization. Most other analysts concede that the
- resemblance is most likely accidental. Other Viking images show a
- smiley-faced crater and a lava flow resembling Kermit the Frog elsewhere
- on Mars. There exists a Mars Anomalies Research Society (sorry, don't
- know the address) to study the Face.
-
- The Mars Observer mission will carry an extremely high-resolution
- camera, and better images of the formation will hopefully settle this
- question in a few years. In the meantime, speculation about the Face is
- best carried on in the altnet group alt.alien.visitors, not sci.space or
- sci.astro.
-
- V. DiPeitro and G. Molenaar, *Unusual Martian Surface Features*, Mars
- Research, P.O. Box 284, Glen Dale, Maryland, USA, 1982. [Apparently the
- first lengthy consideration of the Face published. Does anybody know
- what it costs?]
-
- R.R. Pozos, *The Face of Mars*, Chicago Review Press, 1986. [Account of
- an interdisciplinary speculative conference Hoagland organized to
- investigate the Face]
-
- R.C. Hoagland, *The Monuments of Mars: A City on the Edge of Forever*,
- North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, California, USA, 1987. [Elaborate
- discussion of evidence and speculation that formations near the Face
- form a city]
-
- M.J. Carlotto, "Digital Imagery Analysis of Unusual Martian Surface
- Features," *Applied Optics*, 27, pp. 1926-1933, 1987. [Extracts
- three-dimensional model for the Face from the 2-D images]
-
- M.J. Carlotto & M.C. Stein, "A Method of Searching for Artificial
- Objects on Planetary Surfaces," *Journal of the British Interplanetary
- Society*, Vol. 43 no. 5 (May 1990), p.209-216. [Uses a fractal image
- analysis model to guess whether the Face is artificial]
-
- B. O'Leary, "Analysis of Images of the `Face' on Mars and Possible
- Intelligent Origin," *JBIS*, Vol. 43 no. 5 (May 1990), p. 203-208.
- [Lights Carlotto's model from the two angles and shows it's consistent;
- shows that the Face doesn't look facelike if observed from the surface]
-
-
- NEXT: FAQ #13/15 - Space activist/interest/research groups & space publications
-